WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

OVER VIEW OF AN ASSIGNMENT

This scholarly task presented consists eights concepts namely: the water cycle, the mechanisms and processes of water runoff, reasons for distribution of water, depletion of fresh water, nature of water used in recreational activities, water resources developments focused on underground water and surface water developments, things to be integrated on water resource development and lastly the internal laws and policies on water resources management.

Because of its longer, to avoid extra pages the defines of key terms are defined directly on each concepts on its specific starts. While the reference pages followed after the Water international laws on water resources

Hydrological cycle. Hydrological cycle is a conceptual model that describes the storage and movement of water between the biosphere, the atmosphere, and the hydrosphere. Milan, (1971:70) Water stored in the following reservoirs : atmosphere, ocean, lakes, rivers, sea, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and ground water also moves from one reservoir to another through the processes such as : evaporation, evapo - transpiration, condensation, precipitation, deposition, run off, infiltration, transpiration, sublimation, melting, ground water flow

WATER CYCLE

Note, the ocean is a chief supplier of the 91% evaporating water in the atmosphere and

return to the ocean, 9% of water return to the areas over land masses where climatologically factors induce the formation of precipitation (P. 71) .The resulting imbalance between rates of evaporation and precipitation over land and ocean is corrected by runoff and ground flow of the oceans. Every year the return over of on earth involves 577,000 Km³ of water; where by 502800km, are water evaporated from the oceanic surface, 74,200km³

from land, (19000km³ – 74,200km³ = 44,800km³ and this represent the total run off of the earths` river (42,700k per year and direct ground water runoff water to the ocean 2100km³per year

The hydrological cycle consist the following Processes

condesation

Condensation is the process whereby water vapor change into liquid and it is researched when dew point is reached and form visible water droplets resulting to the formation of clouds in the sky. The up motions produced clouds are due to convection current in un stable air, convergence air associated with cyclones, lifting of air over hills, or mountains [p.17]

Precipitation

Precipitation refers to the moisture that falls from the atmosphere as rain, snow, sleet or hail. Precipitation has various forms like snow, sleet, hail, fogs, and rains. It also varies in magnitudes and intensity, seasons and geographical location. The forms of precipitation classified basing on duration, intensity, averages, returned period

Evaporation is the process whereby water changes into water vapor. Water vapor transfer energy between the surface and their above. This process mostly driven on by latent energy (locked up) when water molecules under goes the phase from liquid to gas

World report shows that; 80% of water on the atmosphere originated from the ocean and 20% from inland water, vegetation and winds moves the evaporated water around the global Influencing humidity of air through the world. Evaporation is more intensive during warmer. Temperature and is commonly along equator

Source: Field at Kalinzi. Picture by Masunga12 / 9/ 2016, 16: 35.p.m

Evapo transpiration is the combined net effect of evaporation and transpiration. This process use large proportions of precipitations compare all other processes associated with hydrological cycle. The process returns moisture to the atmosphere

On other hand transpiration is the process by which plants return moisture to the air plants to take up water through their routes and hen lose some water through pores and heir leaves

Transpiration is the evaporation of water into the atmosphere from the leaves and steams of plants. Plant absorb water through routes 2.5m deep, desert plants 20m deep; (P. 19) the process depend on moisture presences in the surface

Infiltration

is the entering of water

into the soil surface. Infiltration helps to sustain plant growth, the factors influencing infiltration includes; soil properties, soil cover, texture, and structure and soil moisture

Percolation is the down ward movements of water through soil and rock. Percolation always occurs beneath the plant routes zones.

Source: www.savingwater.org this show how percolation contribute to water cycle

Ground water percolates through the soil like water filling the sponges and moves from place to place along the fracture in rocks through sands and gravel or through channels in formations in features like caves, limestone, (P. 21)

Mechanism and processes of water runoff

Runoff is the movement of water usually from precipitation across the earth surface into the stream channels, lakes, oceans, depression or low point on the earths’ surface. Processes involves in run off includes; base flow, surface flow, infiltration, and precipitation. Water runoff effected by factors such as Rain fall duration and intensity, ground slope, soil type, ground cover. Water fall into the ground and infiltrate into the soil while some water moves across the surface as runoff, or if the soil is at its holding capacity

Occurs when the rainfall intensity exceeds the rates of infiltration, and if the soils reach its holding capacity ; sandy soils generates runoff sooner as it absorb more water quickly and become fitted by moisture compare to other types of soil

Transport is the movement of water through the atmosphere, specifically from over the sea or oceans to over land. some earth`s is visible as a cloud which themselves consist of ice crystal and tiny water droplets. Clouds are protected from place to place by Jet Stream; Surface based circulations like land and sea breezes, or other mechanism

Most water are transported into the atmosphere as water vapor and is the 3^rdabundances in the atmosphere

The left figure

How common

Processes

For runoff

Mechanism and processes of water run off

Horton overland flow this process common where rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration capacity. It is common in regions with little vegetation such as semi – arid regions like Dodoma in Tanzania, compacted land which allow logging road, in urban area along parking lots. See the right

Figure; shows

Horton flow after

It has been changed

From its diagram

To real images on

The land scen

The right figure show

Sheet flows. This process occurs when deposition storage is exhausted. Runoff is sharp. It is affected by infiltration variation; capacity of the soil within catchment depends on soil type sand vegetation cover.Tarboton, (2003)

Sheet flow on the

Land, normally sheet

Flows the water cover

Wide layer of the

Surface.

Source:

www.pubs.usgs.gov.2009

Subsurface storm flow (SSSF) .This occurs during the storm; the water table near the stream rises rapidly and increases the volume of underground water flow.

The wetting front reaches the water table is the storm last enough as a result water table rise subsequently; Tarboton, (2003

The subsurface water

When water

Table rise

Near the

Surface

Source: www.atsdr.cdc.org

This process generate low volume of water, run off ration is 20% and most runoff water is stored in the soil, segments, is released slowly to support steadily base flow

Saturation overland flow; Tarboton,(2003)If water near / water stream rise to the ground surface (after heavy rain) ground water seeps out from the ground and generate over land flow. This process also called return overland flow

Return overland flow

Occurs when the soil

Or sand are mostly

Contain enough water

Such that allow

Flow of water

Source: www.mrbdc.mnsu.edu

Reasons for water distribution

Waugh, (2009) defined water as the combination of Oxygen and Hydrogen elements. It is liquid in nature; hover water has three forms that is liquid, solid, and gas. 96% found in oceans the left occupy 4%

Water is uneven distributed throughout the surface, the UNESCO (2015) report show that areas near water bodies such as lake, sea, river, oceans, pond, equatorial, tropical have abundances water compare to those areas located far from water bodies like deserts, semi deserts, horse latitudes. Masunga` understanding water distribution can be defined as the activities, processes of locating, transferring water resources from the sources – lakes, ponds, ground water like springs, artesian, and well, oceans, tanks to the consumers, or to various social economic activities, projects, for ecological functions like along national parks, and channeling channels into forest resources and its components both biotic and a biotic components; Desalegn, (2005)

Bos, et.al (2010 – 15 P.170) report that 1.5 billion people depends on underground water supply, (UN & WWAP 2003) reports 40% used for industries, 20% for irrigation. UNEP, (1996) cemented that 2.5% of water on the earth surface as fresh water

Factors for water distribution includes: distribution of human relatives to the supply of water that is access to water, patterns of demands, presences of water engineering to stabilize flows, seasonal and inter annual, and lastly climates variations, latitudinal locations,and topography

Access to water, the distribution of human relatives in new areas, traditional scattered villages triggering on water distributions across the world since villages are located away from water source hence rare access to water. For example take an examples from our country Tanzania the villages at the central are far way from any big water resources neither lakes nor ocean and people suffering from drought therefore rare access to water and due to this reason the government and NGOs distribute water to save the communities like that of singida, Dodoma, and manyara and shinyanga.See the map of Tanzania above showing water distribution across Area of our Country

Source: world Bank report

Of, 2016. They do research on how water are distributed throughout the regions in Tanzania

Patterns of demands one of the reasons for water supply is the types of demands, and its pattern for example factories demand huge volume of water for washing raw material, cooling machines, and power productions. Therefore areas with industries demanding more water and the distribution of water must consider this so as to maintain production in such factories

Presence of water engineering to stabilize flows of water, this field of studies produce expertise that later involving in water supply. During their studies they learnt various systems for water supply, resources, supply techniques, water properties, water velocities, volume and quantity and quality of water from the sources. Engineers later on made decisions about where, when, why, and to whom water should be distributed to depending on the quality and quantity of water. Therefore water distribution become smooth as this field got into account and they use their experts to check the flows of water in relation to slope, valleys, and its velocity

Climates changes as the time go the climate varies where by water resources are continuing shrinking decades, years after years; this leading some areas to become dry, lack of water and the population is rapidly growingly. This becomes the reasons why now there are programs for water distributions across the world to replace areas lacking water, and projects. Similar program “water distribution from lake Victoria to regions lacking water in Tanzania”, Arizona U.S.A and Egypt and Ethiopia launched similar projects, UNESCO (2010)

Human activities, these includes: irrigation, mining activities, constructions, domestic uses, industries and hotels. Water distributed to cater the needs of such activities and therefore become the basic reasons for water distributions

The nature of the topography area founding on higher elevating land allow flows of water smoothly with little cost, hydraulic force transfer water to targeted areas quickly compare to down up pumping of water which require higher energies. Therefore the nature of the topography determines the type of water distribution systems

Water distribution systems

Distribution network involve involves the components, non linear hydraulic and complex demand patterns where by the computer network models require to calculate flows and pressure in distribution systems to identify various problems, it measure flows and pressure in the network and finally to monitor its flows` behavior .Water distribution systems are always supplied from water reservoirs located at a higher point above supply areas such as hills or water towers. Desalegn, (2005:15) A water distribution system includes;

Network Hydraulics Model of water supply this model function well when water distributions are mostly supplied water reservoirs located at higher points like hills, and towers.

Water flows through the pipes from reservoirs to the consumers and leaks friction energy occurs which reduce pressure at any point the system The greater the pressure the losses will be
blank space.......

Hydraulic Network Models, this model use pumps, switching on and off and reservoir control valves opening and closing as well as the complex hydraulic behavior of water flowing through pipes. This model involves higher efforts to set up, calibrates and maintain. Advantages of this models is that it enable municipalities to predict the behavior of water and future demands, changes in operations, valves and extension hand in hand supply ofwork system

water.

Source: www.thewater. atcoments.com

Depletion of water resource management

Nasa, (2015) defined depletion of fresh water as an act of putting un wanted material into or near water bodies that will hamper its stability on future. These fresh water resources include lakes, rivers, springs, wells, ponds, and manned canals.

The activities depleting water resources includes: overfishing and poor fishing methods, horticulture, agriculture, domestic usages, industrial activities, mining and grazing. The depleting of water leads to scarcity water, death of marine species like Amphibians, distortion of the scene of the water bodies` shore lines, hunger and famine, disturb ecosystem, climatic changes, increase of diseases and lastly poverty. The following are some activities that trigger on destruction of fresh water

Domestic daily activities, these includes: washing, cooking, washing clothes; after these activities the byproduct are thrown into fresh water bodies. This reduce the quality of water and later on leads to disease such as typhoid, Malaria and epidemics. Source: WB

pour fishing methods which kill marine species

Industrial activities these includes manufacturing of goods, clothes, medicines, paper, purification of metal and process sing. The industries` byproduct involves oils, fuels, bottles, and smoke all there if thrown in water bodies without treatment tend to pollute the water bodies and leads to climatic changes, poor water qualities, killing of fishes

Grazing near water bodies over feeding of animal near river, and lakes threat the sustainable water resources as may results drying of rivers, and lakes, sand filling into wells and springs. Animal’s leads to soil erosions as their claws become frequencies, camping along rivers; lakes allow free penetration of fesses (dug) into water and pollute water and its sourceUNEP &UNESCO (2010)

Measures to be taken the community should be well informed about the negative sides of grazing near water bodies, laws should be enacted to stop such pollutions,

Factory owners should be forced to treat their byproducts before released into water bodies, the pollutants should be diluted. Water resource management education required to insure sustainable water resources

Natures of water used in recreation

Historically, recreation water traced back to European especially the Roman practice 400BCE Roman had baths soon after and during industrial revolutions and subsequently development in working condition such as shorter working days and public holidays, discretionary income, along with the current development of transportation technology Ryan, (2003)

Recreation is one among the components of tourism while others are sport tourism, leisure tourism, marine tourism and sun - sea, and sand tourism. Leisure and recreation provides a wide range of choice. It was carried out during leisure hours after working hours by then

Recreation influenced by; time, finances, family life cycle and participants perception of skills, risk, novelty, adventures and challenges; Jennings, (2010)

Nature of recreation water as cited in Dowling, (2006) is characterized with a suitable albeit moving and movable, plat forms. The water based experiences of sailing, and wind surfing, sport and game fishing, white water rafting, kayaking, one – day boating adventures, sail training adventures as well as Scuba diving, free diving and snorkeling, albeit and always associated with platforms. Water resource include; salt, estuarine, fresh and frozen water in their various formation; Kayakng,(2015:6)

The left Show the

Features of recreation water source:

www.atsdr.cdc.org

Water resource Development focused on underground water and surface water management

Seiler and Gate, (2007), defined underground water as water found beneath the earths` completely fill the pores of an aquifer following only a gravity forces. It always discharges to rivers, lakes or directly to the ocean. Most of the ground water is fresh water means that has salt however few cases reported to be salt but very rare. Koppen, (2010)

World research shows that fresh water is made up two - third ice water, underground water account for 96.3% of all non salt water and is about 8,000,000 km^3,lake 2.5 %, soil water 0.8%, rivers 0.01%, the left belong atmospheric water vapors. Over 45% of surface water discharges of rivers in humid and semi – deserts climatic regions

Surface resources; is the water held on the land surface. Surface water have 8, 300, 000 km³of water 40% world populations depends on underground water, 50% world food production depend on irrigation, as cited in (UNESCO 1999)

Basing on world reports of (2016) shows that today` world population range between 7.3 – 7.4 billion people and it is rapidly increasingly this trigger on pressure on resources including underground water and surface water resources and become threat on its sustainable. The research shows that the possible diminution of water resources as a consequence of man – made global climates changes and the drawing attention of the scientific community.

Ground water resource development based on the concepts of ground water yield which turn out difficult, the ground water should meet; Seiler and Gate, (2007: 2)

Managements of both ground water and surface water resources involves the following tactics

Determine the range of ground water recharge with appropriate methods; this way involve methods used to exploit underground water, the method includes

Manipulation of ground water recharge according to the local needs and their responsibilities

Protection of the recharge pathways to natural attention by planting trees near water sources such as rivers. Such plants will hold moisture and prevent from direct sun rays and extremely evaporation, and erosions due to blowing wind will be checked and by doing this both ground water and surface water will be protected

Monitoring of aquifer exploitation; areas around aquifer should be maintained by fencing them to avoid animals, and people who tend to flow searching water for domestic uses

The development of special control clearing systems to recognize access and prevent ground water degradation in time; Seiler & Gate, 2007:3)

Set up proper system water distribution, wherever these natural water resources should be accompanied distribution systems, that will keep away from pollutions, directly utilizations and animal saving.

The house holder should acquire water from the system systematically

What should be integrated on Water Resource Management

Zyl,(2014 P.126) Water resource management involve various reforms including recheck of laws, NGOs, individual supports, government and politician support to maintain optimum uses of water and water resources for sustainable development. He suggested having a cemented organization that will supervise laws; Spray, (2013)

AfDB,(2004) the conference suggested the following strategies to be intergraded in water resource management, namely: facilitating willing and action, facilitating resource mobilization, integrating gender in resource management, fostering partnerships, developing strategies frame work includes the medium – to term strategic frame work (plans that require more times for preparation and development), facilitating capacity building

By the consultation meeting in June (2004) the Africa Development Bank AfDB, including World Bank (P.130) agreed that NEPAD should be supported involvement in trans boundary water resources management would focus on river basin like Niger and Senegal in West Africa, Nile in East Africa, Congo and Lake Chad in Central Africa. Zambezi and Kavango in South Africa. Petersen, (2014) these strategies are explained below

Capacity building this should be systematic included in I international Water Resources Managements (IWFM) plans and should be carried at all levels

Pietersen, (2015 P. 130) cemented that should be Tailor – made capacity building programs for Africa and Sustainable that includes institutional, human (technical and Managerial) material as well as technological and financial aspects and creative approaches, namely networking education and training institutions at all levels, establishment and sustainable national and international center for excellences for critical issues such as ‘capacity building for water intergraded resource management (G.W.P.)’ enhance distance education - United Nations University (UNU) water virtual Learning centre

Strengthening partnerships .UNESCO (2010) explained that partnerships involves; institutes of education such as UNESCO itself, increase partnerships like NGOs, private, public and civil society sectors

The agencies will provide funds, seminal to the people along water resources and catchment zones, will also promote research related to water resource management. If all these sectors intergraded in water resource management will ensure well sustainable an intergraded water resource managements across the world

Political willing and strategic approach, to address these issues of capacity strengthening and retention; PANAFSCO, (2003 P. 131) Pan – Africa conferences planted the MDGs that aimed to build capacity approach on intergraded water resource managements. As cited in Amcow, (2003) insisted institution to have Geo Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC) that can monitor ground, and assessment and associated capacity building, and the use of G. I.S. and Remote Sensing (R.S)

Gender intergraded approach, Pan,) 2003) suggested that in order to succeed water resource management, both genders must be involved. For example women play greater roles on water resources management as they do domestic activities like cooking, washing clothes, however they collectively farm with their husbands, irrigation, provision and safeguarding safe water for domestic agricultural usages. Therefore the roles of both men and women should be includes positively, empower women to ward integrated water resource management

Water international laws and policy

According to Brely, (2008) the law of the UN Non – Navigational uses of the international water resources (UN H₂0) resource conservation and the convection of the protection and use of trans boundaries water course and international lakes (UNECE) aimed on conservation and equitable sharing of biological resources; Bean, (2015 & Loibl ,2004)

The UN – Water resource is global and flexible frame works of instrument prepared and negotiated under the auspices of the UN govern the use, and Management and protection of international water resources. The charter passed by 38 states at the UN generally assembly in May 1997. UN (1999.6)

The article, [36] of the convection requires the deposit of 35 instruments or ratification or access to its entry into force. Once UN in force and widely implemented, the UN water courses convection will reinforce inter – state cooperation at basin levels, significant improving global water governances. This enhances the legal under the CBD for conserving and sustainable using of inland water biodiversity. All these are found within the UN internal water law report of 2005 – 2015 ‘titled water for life’

ERG, (2015) proper uses and respect to activities International Sea bed Area, chamber for fisheries disputes and concerning the conservation and management of marine living resources UNCLOS, Article [119]

Article [1 & 2] of the charter of the UN considering the successive development of rules of international Law and regarding non navigation uses of the international water resources, problems like water pollution and increasing demands. Expressing the conversion will ensure that a frame work conversion, development and conservation, management and protection of international water resources and provision of present and future generations

Chapter [1] Article [13] paragraph (i) as cited in FAO, (1980:28) by Wouters, (2013) regards the states must cooperate to manage water - Trans boundaries. UN meeting on water, peace and security, highlighted the important of finding ways to improve Trans boundary water resource, cooperation and collaboration “water resource cloud become an area source of information and increasing instability” the Article [38] should be a priory in every nations` foreign policy and Domestic Agenda: “we need to work to gather to advance corporation on shared water resources management Articles [39 and 40] Wouters, (2013 P.17)

Source: UNESCO (2009 Pp 8, 22,& 55) The UNEP and UNESCO summarized on how international law operates, inclusions of gender equality in Tran’s bounder water resource management both on big rivers like Nile, Congo basin, Niger, Zambezi, lakes, and oceans throughout the word. Article [5, 20, 38, 40 119, and123,] chapter one [1]

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Internet related Web sites

www.clicktoconvert.com

www.engineering,usu.edu